submitted in

fulfillment of the

requirements for

Honors Option

Professor: Dr. Kent Kerby

Abstract

The Minoans are a group of seafarers that lived around 3000 BC on an island south of Greece in the Mediterranean Sea. Through their desires to trade they had contacts with Egypt, the Pelopenese, and the East Oriental cultures. They had a structured language known as Linear A which has not yet been deciphered. Their capital was located at Knossos and is famous for being an unwalled structure with impressive architecture, fabulous art, and plumbing. The palace is known as the labyrinth and holds within its walls the myth of the minotaur. Around 2000 BC another pre-Greek civilization, the Myceneans, seemed to take over the land of Crete. There was also a volcanic eruption around that time that was probably also linked to the Minoan fall. Overall, these people are known for their beauty both physically and artistically. They were known for their peaceful nature, which may not have prepared them their conquer.

The research presents a structured encapsulation of the way of life of these Minoans including their history, both mythical and factual, as well as representations of their styles and religion theorized upon only what they left behind.

Introduction 4

During January of 1998, I had the opportunity to explore a land far away from my home. I traveled to Greece with a group of students from Lakeland College and returned with a developing fascination to learn about the ancient civilizations of the past. The focus of this paper is to examine a civilization in hopes to give the reader a more in depth view of the characteristics of these ancient peoples as well as to present some scenes that the reader may not necessarily be exposed to through photography.

The Minoan history can be broken down into four stages: Pre-Palatial—before palaces, First Palatial--construction of the first palaces, New Palatial—construction of the new palaces, and Post Palatial—decline of the Minoan empire. The Pre-Palatial period was between 2700-2000 BC and was also known as Bronze Age Crete. During this time, there were no palaces built and few objects have been made. It was their time for development. The First Palatial Period was from 2000-1700 BC. Foundations of palaces have been found that date back to this time as well as evidence of a use of language through hieroglyphics.

The New Palatial period was from 1700-1450 BC. This was a time of great power for these people which is seen through the many palaces that have been found. It was during this time that a treaty was created called the "Pax Nimonica." All who signed were under the protection of Crete and therefore did not need to build their own walls. Crete, at this time, was the ruler of the sea.

The Post Palatial was after 1450 BC. There was a great volcanic eruption of Santorini, which brought forth earthquakes and tidal waves that had disastrous effects on the Minoan cities. It occurred between 1647 and 1628 BC. The Mycenean warriors probably took advantage of the now weakened but still peaceful nation and conquered the area about 100 years later.

Its mythological history centers on the great but cruel King Minos who ruled Crete and the waters surrounding. This story begins with Europa, a beautiful maiden whom Zeus fell in love with.

Europa with her sisters was gathered at a river where they had met often to enjoy the wonders of every day. On one day, Zeus in heaven watched the girls and saw Europa shining out as the Goddess of Love. Her mischievous son Cupid shot one of his arrows into the heart of Zues causing him to fall madly in love with Europa. (These were the only two who could ever have power over Zeus.) Even though, his wife Hera was away, he thought it necessary to disguise himself as a bull one that was "beautiful beyond all bulls that ever were, bright chestnut in color, with a silver circle on his brow and horns like the crescent of the young moon." (Hamilton 79)

All the girls caressed him but he drew toward Europa. He knelt down to show him her back, and she tried to persuade all the others to come with her and mount him. She sat down but the others had no chance to mount him. He leaped and with full speed darted to the seashore and over the water. The waves grew still before him. And the sea-gods arose from the sea on dolphins. She realized that this was no bull at all but must truly be a god. He told her to have no worry where he was taking her would be safe.

He took her to Crete, his own island, where he was hidden as a newborn from Cronos. As he had told her, it was there that she beared him two glorious sons. Both of which would be judges of the Dead. Minos was one of these sons.

Minos had a wife named Pasiphae. She gave birth to the minotaur, a monster of half bull and half man, after falling under a curse of Poseidon, the God of the sea. Posiedon had given Minos a beautiful bull that was to be sacrificed to him after Minos agreed to sacrifice the next thing that came out of the ocean. Minos made this agreement because he "claimed that no creature in his possession was worthy to offer [to] so great a diety" (Schwab 151) But Minos decided to substitute the bull because of its beauty. This made Poseidon very upset, and he put the curse on Pasiphae that she would fall in love with the bull. When the minotaur was born, Minos, extremely embarassed, had Deadalus construct a palace of confinement designed so that escaping would be impossible.

The great legend of the labyrinth comes after Minos had lost his only son, Androgenous, when he was visiting Athens and trying to kill a dangerous bull in Attica. Minos then invaded the country and commanded that Athens send him seven maidens and seven youths every nine years. They were given to the minotaur as food.

The minotaur was killed on the third tribute by Theseus, son of the king of Athens, who fell in love with Ariadne, the daughter of King Minos. Ariadne begged Deadalus for the secret of the labyrinth so that her lover would not be killed. Theseus went into the maze with a string connected to him and the other end attached to the entrance. He went in, killed the minotaur, and used the string to guide his way back out.

Crete lies in the Meditereaen Sea just south of Greece. Its size is about the same as Peurto Rico. The map in Appendix A shows its location. Its land is mountainous and rocky today as it was during the time of the Minoans. The plateaus are split by gorges that end up in fertile valleys.

Sources of food included grains, domesticated livestock, wild animals and fish, and a limited number of fruits and vegetables. For the cultivation of the grains, they used a plough handle made of two additional pieces of wood that were bound together with leather thongs. Pairs of oxen or donkeys drew these ploughs. The wheat and barley was sown after plowing and harvested using sickles. Their threshing technique is unknown but is probably similar to the method used today. The plant is thrown into the air allowing the chaff to blow away in the breeze and the grain to fall to the ground.

Circular pits that have been found around palaces may have served as granaries. Picture A in Appendix B is of the pits at Knossos.

Other crops that were also grown include: vetch, chickpeas, pigeon peas, cultivated peas, sesame, hemp, flax and castor oil. In addition, there were large areas for grape vineyards. (Today, Crete is famous for its distinctive wine.) Grape pips were dried in autumn sun and stored for winter food. The fruits were used to make red and white wines. It is thought that grapes are originally native to Crete.

It is also apparent that olives were a heavy crop in the alternate years. All trees seemed to be in phase. The olives were easily stored and the oil was used for cooking, lighting, and possibly body oil. They were harvested between November and March by being beaten from trees with sticks, soaked in water, and crushed in presses. The oil was drained into clay jars. Fig trees may also have grown but were probably regarded as sacred.

The livestock options that were available to these people included: cattle, sheep, goats, and pigs. They did large-scale breeding of all of these. In Knossos, there is evidence of single pigs being offered as special offerings for sacrifice. The bulls were features of the very popular bull games which may have been a religious rite. Dogs and cats were used with the hunting of waterfowl, wild goats, deer and wild boar. These people also learned how to take advantage of the fish in the sea.

According to Castledon, the Minoan personality is that of elegance, gracefulness and an innocent pleasure taken in displaying their own phisical beauty. The are thought of as being lithe and athletic, enjoying sports such as boxing, wrestling and bull-leaping. They were also aesthetics and enjoyed sophisticated archtiecture, beautiful objects, and nature. The frescoes that were found portrayed these many characteristics through representations of landscapes that were full of flowers, birds and butterflies. They were also known as being collectively strong with extensive fleets that controlled the seas all around Crete. However, overall they were lovers of peace.

The style of dress of the Minoans is taken from stone, metal, and clay statuettes, sealstones that contained decorative metalwork, and elaborate frescoes. The people on these objects were drawn with straight noses that had a high bridge and large almond-shaped eyes. They had conspicuous eyebrows and long, wavy black hair that fell in curling locks to their shoulders or waists. Their bodies were tanned and portrayed as athletic with the shoulders and thighs strong and muscular and their waists and lower legs slim. These may have been the ideals of the day. (Castleden 9) These same ideals are also sensed throughout historical Greece. The classical erea needed such strong men to hold up the city-state.

The clothes that were worn as well as the jewelry and ways of painting the face were meant to accentuate the body’s fine characteristics. The clothing was probably made of wool based on the clay spindle whorls and loom weights that were found at many sites and the references to the many flocks of sheep that were listed on clay tablets found at Knossos.

The men were almost always shown wearing a loincloth that was rolled and tucked around the waist or held up with a belt. There were several styles represented over the time periods. The loincloths could have been folded out on each side, which covered up the thighs or wrapped around the waist similar to a miniskirt. There also appeared to be patterned shorts of one to two layers.

The men were also shown wearing a codpiece with or without a loincloth. A codpiece was a straight and narrow genital guard that was held up with a belt. In 1700 BC, it became more pronounced by being wider and left exposed when worn with a kilt. The kilts were designed around the codpiece with a design that covered the fronts of the thighs but expose the sides and the curled up in the back. These are most clearly represented on the Harvesters on the "Harvester Vase" that was found in Aghia Triadha. There were other kilts that were long in the back and sloped towards the codpiece in the front.

Around 1500 BC, the codpiece seemed to be covered more often. This may have been due to a bulkier kilt design that had a hem that sloped down from the back to the front and ended at the knees. Their skimpy clothes were thought of as a way of showing off their physique. Later on the codpiece was replaced by a decorative tassel which had beads. The men’s skimpy clothes were probably meant to reveal their physique.

The women preferred to accentuate their full hips and breasts and tiny waists. Much of the artwork found showed the women’s left breast completely exposed. The earlier Minoan women were dressed in long robe-like dresses that were tied at the waist by girdles that were wrapped two full times around beginning in the front and ending in a knot. The tops were sometimes shown as separate pieces and had short and tight sleeves. There was always a slit down the front that ended at the navel. This fashion allowed the full breasts to be shown or just the cleavage. These bodices rose to peaks at the back of the neck.

The footwear that was portrayed was lacking on the women although some were shown to have on sandals. The men typically wore calf-length leather or woolen fabric boots that almost always had turned up or at least pointed toes. Additional clothing may have included wide flat caps or short and thick-rolled brimmed caps. The women were shown in a variety of styles beginning with pointed hats that may have been necessary due to the hairstyles. After 1700BC, the hats became much more extravagant.

The women’s hair was generally shown as dark-brown to black worn very long and with curled locks falling around the face and in front of the ears. The men wore their hair shorter, which may have been safety related. The men were also most often clean-shaven or had trimmed moustaches and beards. Small bronze blades in a leaf-shape were found that might have been used as a razor. There were also small choppers and tweezers found that resembled those found previously in Egypt

Both sexes were known to wear jewelry. The women most typically were shown having gold-tipped hairpins, large and very elaborate earrings, as well as anklets, armlets, beaded collars and necklaces of copper, silver, gold, and semi-precious stones. During the later periods, these accents became much simpler perhaps as a result of the more difficult times.

There were several different scripts that developed during the Minoan era. The writing started out as pictures drawn by potters on the vases. These signs are thought to represent a form of writing. Around 2100 BC, a script appeared that had sub-realistic images of animals, body parts, and objects. It is thought of as a pictographic script that resembles those seem in Mesopotamia. Its true origin has not yet been linked.

The Minoans are most typically thought to be the originators of Linear A. It is found to be used all over Crete between the 18^th and 15^th centuries BC. It is a script that seemed to be used in keeping accounts and for dedicatory inscriptions. Tablets with this script have been found at Knossos, Agia Triadha, and Phaisto among others. A sampling of the script is shown below.

 (Linear A)

This script has yet to be deciphered.

There is another script that may be related to Linear A that is found on the famous Phaistos Disc. This disc dates back to 1600 BC and could mean a variety of things. Some think that it may be a prayer of a hymn because of the way many of symbols are repeated as a series. It could also be words or syllables or may represent a list of gods or soldiers. There are 45 symbols and seems to be read from the inside out. The disc is of fired clay. A sample of this script is written below.

(Phaistos Disc Script)

The primary religious figure was that of Mother Earth. It was represented as a goddess with the face of a woman to represent fertility. She was portrayed to have a son and a daughter that were born in the spring and died in the winter. This type of religion is known as annual in a matriarchal society. It focuses on the birth and rebirth that is typically associated with agriculture.

According to Nanno Marinatos, the frescoes that were found in the palace of Knossos seem to tell the story of the people’s way of worship. A visitor to the palace would enter through the "Corridor of Processions." On either side was painted life-size figures, most bieng male but some female, carrying vessels or garments. They are dressed in a variety of styles including long robes or animal-hide skirts which may suggest their different status or age group. Its has been reconstructed and named "Cup Bearers" by Arthur Evans.

From here, the procession would lead to the "Throne Room" which had a fresco of a landscape with two griffins around the throne. The griffins throughout the mural implied eyesight and strength tend to be common guardians and companions of divinities. In many of the frescoes, numerous griffins are seen with the female divinities. The fresco beneath the throne is of a landscape with sacred trees and guardians, which implies that the primary occupant of this room must have held extreme religious power. Some suggest that it may have been a woman.

There are other frescoes through the palace that depict banquet scenes. They are shown in acts that resemble toasting rituals. Many of these frescoes can be seen on display at Herakleion Museum. Many have been reconstructed, and there is also a fabulous scale model of the palace.

The chief deity was the powerful goddess of nature. This dates back to Pre-Palatial times from which many vessels testify to a form of this goddess. She is most frequently represented as a mother holding a jug as if it was a baby. Its breasts were perforated for the liquid to flow through. The goddess thus seems to be connected with her ability to flow out life-giving ability. There is also evidence of her connection to nature through the burial rituals. Around the bones were found figurines of animals and birds.

During the Palatial Period, the goddess’s transformation took place. This is the time of increasing population and the construction of palaces. The goddess broadened into a mountain goddess that had proclaiming gestures and appearance. There also emerges a goddess that is most frequently shown with a snake. Evans believes that it was "the underworld form of the Great Minoan Goddess." (Marinatos 148) However, she could have also been the guardian of the household or palace as the snake carries a protector effect in the European beliefs.

The goddess that emerged in the Late Palatial Period gives her a humanistic form but with looping arms and lilies all around. This displays her connection with the agricultural cycle. In the new Palatial Period, the goddess most often appears seated or standing. She is shown being worshipped by humans with open arms in countryside settings. This is a peculiar way of worship compared to common Christianity of today, which prays with the face down and palms together. The animals that have been drawn with the goddess are goat, deer and lions. She is most often shown feeding these animals. This may represent a sense of harmony and affection.

The bull may be a reminder of the mythical origins to us with the focus on the minotaur and the legend of the minotaur in the labyrinth. However, to these people it was a symbol of strength and fertility. According to Marinatos, there are some that say the bull was worshipped as a god and others that argue it wasn’t even an object of adoration. However, there is strong evidence that it was a hunted animal as well as one used for sacrificial purposes.

A famous fresco that was found at Knossos was entitled "Cup Bearers" It portrays what may be a ceremonial or religious procession. It is thought to be originally of at least 500 people. Picture A in Appendix D is the copy that now stands at Knossos. Also found in Appendix C (Picture D) is the "8-Shaped Shield." The colors of which imitate the skin of the bull. It is made of a bull’s hide.

Another symbol that is used to represent the Minoan culture and the palace at Knossos is the "Double Ax." It may or may not have been used to sacrifice the bulls. The "house of the double ax" means labrys, which may have inspired the Greek myth about the minotaur in the labyrinth.

A remarkable fresco that displays flexibility in the characters (a characteristic that isn’t seen again for one thousand years) is that called "Bull Leaping." It depicts both men and women in the act of catching hold of a bull’s horns and using the bull’s energy to be flung backwards over the back perhaps stopping midway for an added jump off of the bull’s back. There are few believers as to if this act is possible. It is most likely an exaggeration of what skilled acrobats would work towards. It was also probably an event that lead to the hunting of the bull. Many of these scenes as well as other artistic renditions were found in the palace of Knossos and can be seen now in the Heraklion Museum. .

Perhaps one of the most fascinating aspects of the culture and most interesting with regards to sightseeing is their design of the architecture. They seemed to be very peaceful people and trusting as mentioned before, and their architecture reflects these ideals. For example, the style of the palaces was that of an open design. This meant that the structure was built around an open courtyard that allowed in light. No walls were built around the palace contrary to the later centuries of conquering nations.

The designs of the Minoan era seem to represent the beginnings of Western architecture. The most elaborate structures were those that dated to the Middle Minoan era between 2000-1700BC. There are also great palaces that are dated back to 1400 BC.

The Cretan architects seemed to prefer a functional appearance designed for the public, private, and religious experience. In the designs, they preferred an organic composition. There also seemed to be little concern for boundaries of any sort or symmetry. They used columns for support or to line a walkway. Corridors were used to separate rooms that had different functions. There were usually also two to three levels that may also have ranged in function. The interiors thus demonstrated a very skillful use of volumes for organization. A typical decorative piece that was used was a very colorful mural or fresco.

Functionally, the palace was the chief ceremonial center and the location of the administrative buildings and workshops. The first palaces had a rectangular court such as the one at Knossos, which measured 165x82.5 feet. This court was used as a traffic center. After 1700 BC, the palaces became the focus of power and authority. It was also a way of representing the fact that the palace never closed up on itself.

The trip I took focused on the palaces at Knossos and at Phaistos. The palace at Knossos was built during the New Palacian period. Sir Arthur Evans discovered the ruins of which in the early 1900s. He decided that the best way to truly understand it would be to rebuild it according to the foundation that was uncovered as well as his opinion of what it must have looked like. He decided to use cement to replace the wood that had originally stood in its place. He also used marble and stones. A plan of the palace can be found in Appendix C.

The palace is known as the "house of the double ax." (Ancient Architecture p 213) This word for this term is "labrys" which may have inspired the myth of the labyrinth of Deadelus. The palace was the inescapable residence of the minotaur. The palace itself covers a perimeter of 495 feet east to west and 330 feet north to south.

The West side of the palace was the location of the administration center and the store rooms. The East side is the royalty side. The three pits (shown in Appendix A) on the north side may have been used for granaries, libations for rituals, or even a place to dump the garbage. The South side was the Propylea or the monumental entrance.

There were two streeets, narrower than sidewalks, which were followed to the entrance. Originally columns were constructed of upside-down tree trunks that lined this entrance. (They were put in this fashion to prevent the trees from growing again.) After the entrance we were encountered with a copy of the fresco "Cup Bearers." Looking behind, we were shown the "Horns of the Sacred Bull" representing strength and fertility.

The palace was originally constructed of three to four floors. Eighteen of the rooms appeared to be used as storerooms because they contained huge Pythos jars. There were about 150 in total and were thought to have contained olives, oils or grains. Many of these jars were found in lower rooms that contained a crypt. A rope would have then been tied around the neck of the jar and through the holes so that it could be lifted out. Picture C in Appendix D is of a crypt containing these jars.

The "Throne Room" (Picture D) contains the throne made of gypsum perhaps for King Minos. On the walls, there are frescoes of griffins which have the head of an eagle to symbolize eyesight and the body of a lion to symbolize strength. There is a vase in the room thought to be for libations or offerings or for purification. There are rows of benches along the east wall that could hold 16 people.

On the north side where the administration center is located, there is an additional commercial entrance. It was probably put here because of its nearness to the port. It is also known as the "Custom’s House" and is thought to be the place where taxes were collected. It also has a libation room used in conjunction with purification.

The port is in a river that flows from the north. It is thought that they may have washed the clothing in this river. An interesting sophistication of the palace was that it did contain a drainage system. However, there was no drain in what appeared to be the bathroom of the queen. One hypothesis for this reason is that she may have taken baths like the Egyptians using milk and water. The King’s room is right next door.

The workshops to the north were for stone and metal objects for the king. Nearby, we were able to see a fresco of the "8-shaped Shield." There were also frescoes portraying the famous Bull games. Many shrines of the religious figure Mother Earth were found throughout the palace. All of the rooms had windows to let in the light. Frescoes of skins dipped in oils to make them transparent lined these windows.

A final note defines again the sophistication that these people must have had. A theater was found lies nearby the palace. This structure was not again seen until the 6^th century BC in ancient Greece. The city was never located, but is still thought to lie underground or in the sea. At its peak, the city may have had 100,000 residents. Additional pictures of the palace at Knossos can be found in Appendix D. A plan of a typical Minoan town is found in Appendix F.

A palace similar is the one found at Phaistos. Its floor plan, again taken from Ancient Architecture can be found in Appendix D. It was the second largest, next to Knossos, palace to be discovered. It was constructed during the Palacial Period, destroyed and rebuilt.

It is again built around a central courtyard but has its main entrance on the West side. The workshops contained a kiln that was probably used for metal or clay vases. The designs on the Pythos jars represented various fluctuations of their prosperity with the most elaborately decorated dating to their most prosperous years.

The structure was built of three floors. The "Grand Staircase" was made of stone and wood. There is also a theater but it dates to the 3^rd century BC. Picture A in Appendix E is of the "Grand Staircase." What stands at this site is exactly what was found. An Italian group who chose not to rebuild like Evans had excavated it. Additional pictures of this area can also be found in Appendix E.

The Minoan people are shown to be highly sophisticated for their time through their fashion design and architecture. The religious practices they used seemed also to be typical of an emerging society. The dedication they presented to a goddess called Mother Earth is proof of their dependence on agriculture. Finally, their ideals of an inner peace as demonstrated through their love of nature and unique design of an open architectural style leads me to believe that the nature of the human must have developed with an inner satisfaction and no desire to conquer.

Map of the Aegean World

(Crete is highlighted)

Taken from: Minoans, Philistines, Greeks p 115

The plan of the palace at Knossos.

Taken from: Ancient Architecture: Mesopotamia, Egypt, Crete, Greece p 200.

 Picture A

Circular pits at

Knossos

Picture B

Copy of the fresco

"Cup Bearers"

located at Knossos

Picture C

Crypt containing

Pythos Jars

Picture D

8-shaped Shield Fresco

Proplylea

Horns of the Sacred Bull

Official Room of throne for King

Overview of Throne room (left)

North entrance (right) 

East side of Palace above the room of the Queen

Western Entrance

Plan of the palace of Phaistos

Picture A

Grand Staircase in center

Overview

Yard & Workshops

Land around Phaistos

Overview of yard

 3 Pythos jars

2 Huge Pythos Jars

 Landscape to the west

Minoan town

1. Burn, A.R. Minoans, Philistines, Greeks. New York: Alfred A. Knoff 1930.
2. Castleden, Rodney. Minoans: Life in Bronze Age Crete. London: Routledge.1990.
3. Lloyd, Sam. Muller, Wolfgang. Martin, Roland. Ancient Architecture: Mesopotamia, Egypt, Crete, Greece. New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc. 1974.
4. Schwab, Gustav. Gods & Heroes: Myths and Epics of Ancient Greece. New York: Pantheon Books, Inc. 1946.
5. Greece John S. Bowman, John Bozman, Michael C. Goldstein, Sherry Marker, Tom